述每個生物體的方程將是一樣的。畢竟,這就是相同行的含義。 但重要的是,根據假設這兩個生物體在演算法系統或功能層面上又存在很大的差異,一個有意識而另外一個卻沒有。從神經生物學的角度來看,這又意味著什麼呢?作為一個生物學家,我的回答是:在行為如何完成一系列能明確表示出來的目標方面他們是不同的,在演算法系統上他們也是不同的,但是在神經生理學層面上他們又是相同的。他們可以完成相同的行為,但是其中一個是有意識地去完成這一行為,而另一個則不是,這說明就生物學“硬體”來講,他們必然是不同的。 在做出這個斷言時,我實際上假定了意識對生物體可以產生影響,844 它參與了行為得以產生的過程。同時我還假定與其他所有已知的生物學過程一樣,意識受到自然選擇規律的影響並且遵循宇宙的物理學定律。 我只是簡單地把這些作為假設條件。如果我在假設中犯了錯誤,或者如果意識確實不起作用,不能以任何方式影響行為,不受自然選擇規律的支配,不受宇宙的物理學定律所約束,那麼它可能與任何的神經經濟學分析都是不相關的。 然而,如果我們把這些假設作為出發點,我們確實可以得出這樣的結論:意識就是戴維•瑪爾所說的“演算法技術”。它是一個由大腦產生的過程,該過程用來產生行為。進化會對產生行為的演算法技術起作用, 而且它會有選擇地作用於意識的生物學基礎。意識是我們和其他相近的物種用來產生行為的演算法法則的一部分。因此我的觀點是:雖然不是很多,但是神經經濟學確實向我們揭示了意識的某些方面。如果存在意識,那麼它應該處在瑪爾的演算法法則中。也許我們的神經生物學硬體正是透過某種進化的機制,最終產生了行為。 14.5 結語幾乎可以完全肯定地說,機率論僅僅產生了350年,它依然處在幼年期。在3個多世紀以前,伽利略和他的同輩們不能解釋一個丟擲的骰子將會如何落下。但在今天,那看起來只不過是一個很微小的問題。但是我們自己運用和理解概然論的推理能力依然是受到限制的。100多年前,量子物理學家證實了物質在根本上的概然論本質,但是直到今天我們之中的絕大部分人發現,不確定性帶來了更多的麻煩而不是啟示。真正用概然論來理解世界在概念上仍然是十分困難的。 • 281•
345 決策、不確定性和大腦——神經經濟學不過我們還是取得了顯著的進步。在1738年,當雅克•德•沃康松在 Tuileries 花園展示他的機械鴨時,他要求觀眾回答鴨子行為的本質中是否包含一些不能被機械時鐘結構所捕捉的特性。大多數人的回答是肯定的,一個真正的鴨子不僅僅是一個確定性機械。今天我們知道沃康松的觀眾是正確的。一個真正的鴨子要比一個確定的機械複雜得多。 這並不是說一個真實的鴨子不是一個物質體系,而是說它與沃康松的鴨子不一樣,它是一個不可確定的物質體系。笛卡兒在沃康松之前的1個世紀就開始著手解決這個問題,但是他沒有意識到不可確定的物質體系是可能存在的,反而提出了一個二元論世界觀。笛卡兒的世界觀既包括確定的物理過程,又包括不確定的非物理過程。這是一個基於他自己對不確定性理解的錯誤概念。與沃康松的鴨子不一樣,實際的動物一定既是物質的,同時又是不確定的,笛卡兒從來沒有考慮過這種可能性。 註釋 [1] 雖然它在那時還沒有被髮表。 醬 •282•
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索引* 含有圖片的頁碼用斜體字表示。“”表示表格,“ ”表示註釋。 Aleatory uncertainties,偶然不確定性, 192-193,198 Algorithms,演算法、運算元 algorithmic(functional) level,演算法 (功能)層面,343-344 backpropagation algorithm,反向傳輸演算法,119-120 Ballard's game theoretic opponent, 巴拉德的博弈論之爭,310 computational goals and (Marr),計算目標, 141,142, 171,175, 199-200 Anatomy,解剖學。參見 Muscle contraction; Neural architecture; Spinal cord anatomical work of Vesalius,維薩琉斯的解剖學著作,17-19 dissection in the early Renaissance, 文藝復興早期的解剖,16-17 and experimental physiology,解剖生理學實驗,23-24,25,26-27 Ancients,古人。參見 Medical physiology of ancient Greece; Philosophy of ancient Greece Andersen,Richard A.,安德森,理查 * 沈佳、馬航、王俊昌、崔晉義、祝東宇、關偉雄、周宏偉、李民、張文偉、龔義、鄭德平、胡平、 魯小湖、張建民、王小芽、孫暉、羅建平、張和宇、馬曉禹、孫濤、李敏、崔靜、李軍、顧長兵、洪雲、杜偉民、王一凡、陶澤、崔劍、毛彪偉、衛民、杜兵、張小強、洪勇等校對了書稿。 • 291•
決策、不確定性和大腦一 —神經經濟學德 A. coordinate transform experiments,並行轉化實驗,242-245,243 memory saccade experiments,記憶掃視實驗,245,246,247 Animal behavior,動物行為,參見 Birds; Fish; Foraging behavior attentional behavior,關注行為,328 decision making,決策,202 defining the goals of,定義動物行為的目標,100-101,171,255,319 game theory applied to,應用博弈論, 294-297 as lawful at a probabilistic level,在概率層面上合理的動物行為,341-342 Pavlov's study of the salivary reflex, 巴甫洛夫關於唾液反射的研究,71 primate behavior,靈長類的行為(參見 Behavior; Primate vision,experimental studies) Sherrington's study of the scratch response,謝林頓關於搔癢反應的研究,65-66 under Nash equilibrium conditions, 在納什均衡條件下,295-297 whether irreducibly uncertain or nondeterminate,不可約簡的不確定性,293 - 294,309(參見 Unpredictable behavior) Antagonistic reflex,對抗反射,97-98 Architectural constraints, of biological organisms,生物體的結梅性限制, 154,155,157, 158, 166,172,222 Arnauld,Antoine,阿爾諾,安託萬, 184-186 Artificial intelligence,人工智慧,117 Associatiomal functions of the cortex,大 •292• 腦皮層的協作功能,233,234,235237,241 Astronomy,天文學,193,198 Atomic theory (Democritus),原子理論 (德謨克利特),12-13 Attention,注意力 as a cognitive factor,認知要素,249 decision making as the goal of,以決策為目標,328 defined,確定的,323 as a limited resource,一種有限的資源,323 -324, 326-328 as sensory enhancement vs. intertion,感覺強化,242,245,249, 250-251 visual attention,視覺注意力,323 -328 Attentional enhancement hypothesis, 注意力強化假設,237,239- 240, 242, 247,255 distributed cue trial testing of,分佈式暗示實驗,255 peripheral attention task testing of, 外圍注意力實驗,247-250,248 vs. the command hypothesis,命令假設,240- 242,245 Attentive fixation task,集中注視任務, 237 -239, 238, 248,255 Babbage,Charles,巴比奇,查爾斯, 51-53 Bacon,Francis,培根,弗朗西絲,19, 20,33,47 advocating the experimental method, 倡導實驗方法,20-22 Bacterium foraging strategy,細菌覓食策略 optimal fitness solution for,最佳適應性解,201- 202 in a patchy environment,在聚集的環境中,201-202,335-336 in a uniform environment,在均勻的環境中,201,335 Ballard's game theoretic opponent,巴拉德的博弈論之爭,310 Barlow,Horace B.,巴洛,霍勒斯 B.,165 Bayes,Thoras,貝葉斯,托馬斯, 193-194 Bayesian probability estimation,貝葉斯機率估計,256,268,271 in animal decision making,動物決策過程,202 computing evolutionary utility with, 計算進化效用,199,200 in monkey decision making,猴子決策過程,325,326,329-330 in studies of neural firing rates,神經元啟用率研究,333 Bayesian theorem,貝葉斯定理,193, 195,198 calculating likeihood of world states,計算世界的似然狀態,194- 196,195 conditional probability density function,條件機率密度函式,196 as a critical advance in probability theory,機率論的重要發展,191 the equation,方程,197 Behavior,行為。參見 Brain-behavior link;Deterministic behavior; Unpredictable behavior dualist separation of simple vs.complex,簡單行為和複雜行為的二元論分離,30-31,271 as volitional vs.deterministic,(see 索引 also Volition),意志的與確定性的 (見意志),49-51 macroscopic vs. microscopic interpretation of,宏觀與微觀解釋,272273,293 simple and complex behavior as a continuum,作為閉聯集的簡單與復雜行為,314 Behavioral ecology,行為生態學,206208,223, 271, 271-272。參見 Aninal behavior; Foraging theory mate selection studies,擇偶研究, 208,319 optimality modeling in,最優模型, 207-208 use of economic theory in,利用經濟學理論,271 -272,318,319-320 Behavioral indeterminacy,行為的不確定性。參見 Non-determinist behavior Behavior-brain link,行為和大腦之間的聯絡。參見 Brain-behavior link Bell, Charles,貝爾,查爾斯,50-51 Bernoulli,Daniel,伯努利,丹尼爾, 189- 192,199,262,281 Bernoulli,Jakob,伯努利,雅各布,187 Bernoulli, Nicholas,伯努利,尼古拉斯,188-189 Bernstein, Nickolas,伯恩斯坦,尼考來,104-108,140 the calculus of motion,運動微積分, 106-107 on the kinematic vs. dynamic problem in movement,關於運動學與動力學問題,107-108 on reflex theory as inapplicable to the motor cortex,不適用於運動皮層 •293•
決策、不確定性和大腦的反射理論,104-106 Billiard ball world,撞球世界。參見 Determinism; World states; Robotics behavioralgoals in the (deterministic),(確定性)行為目標;172176,173,176 irreducible uncertainty in,不可約簡的不確定性,273-276,274 Biological constraints,生物學的約束 architectural constraints,結構的約束,154,155,157,158,166, 172,222 defining as a goal of computational neuroscience,可計算的神經科學目標的確定,166-167 phyletic constraints,物種限制, 154,155,157,166,172,222 Spandrels and Renaissance architecture analogy to,文藝復興和拱形建築類推,153-154 Biological organisms,生物體,288, 338。參見 Animal behavior; Evolution competition among,競爭,290。(參見 Natural selection; Strategic behavior) as complex systems,作為複雜系統, 159,164-167 defining ecological goals of,確定生態學目標,143-144,171- 172, 200-202, 255,319 essential aspects vs.deterministic behavior in,核心方面與確定性行為,4-5 as machines, 機械,37,45,6162,69,71,205 - 206,272,345 (參見 Clockwork systems) measuring and describing biological •294• -神經經濟學 systems,生物系統的測度與描述, 154-155 Biomechanical models,機械生物學模型 of muscle contraction,肌肉收縮的, 98-99,100-103 of the stretch response,拉伸反射的, 96-100,98 Biomedical texts (medieval),生物醫學教材(中世紀),9-12 Bird,鳥類 avian wing form,烏翼形狀,289 group foraging behavior in birds,鳥群覓食行為,207,218,218-221 group foraging behavior in ducks,鴨群覓食行為,294-297 organismic fitness goals exemplary in flight of,遷徙中典型的生物適宜性,202-203 Body-soul dualism,身心二元論。參見 Cartesian dualism of ancient Greece,古希臘的,1314,15 Boole,George,布林,喬治,56,56-57 Boolean propositional logic,布林命題邏輯,56- 58,60- 61,114 Bracewell, R. Martyn and R. A. Andersen,佈雷斯韋爾,R. 馬丁和 R. A. 安德森 saccadic eye-movement trials, •眼睛掃視運動實驗,249-250 Brain,大腦。參見 Primate brain Brain-behavior link,大腦一行為之間的聯絡。參見 Neurobiological models of the brain brain(volition)vs.spinal cord(reflex)model,大腦(意志)與脊髓反射模型,48- 51 defining as a goal of neurophysiology, 定義神經生理學的目標,4-5, 319,321 economic theory as a tool for determining,作為決策工具的經濟學理論,202-203 involving a global hierarchical system, 全域性性等級體系,95,101,103, 108。(參見 Neural architecture) modular processing involved,模組化處理,143-144,148-149,164 165,166。(參見 Modula-rity) neuro computational goals and,神經計算目標,140-141,141,145,148 reflexological paradigm limits understanding of,反射論正規化的侷限, 77,131-133 Bright/dim discrimination,亮暗識別, 324 - 328 Brownian motion,布朗運動,158 Brown,T. Graham,布朗,T. 格雷厄姆, “half-center”oscillator hypothesis, “半中心”振盪假設,85,85-86 sensory deprivation experiments,消除感覺的實驗,83- 86 study of internal rhythms,對內部節奏的研究,82,83-85 Calculi,微積分。參見 Determinate mathematics Boolean propositional logic,布林命題邏輯,56-58,60-61,114 calculus of motion,運動微積分,106107 calculus of probability,機率論的算法,187,192,205,276 索引 development of analytic calculus,微積分分析的發展,41-44,53 logical limits to,邏輯侷限性,59, 72-73,74-75 science and,科學,35-36,40 Cartesian dualism,笛卡兒二元論,166167, 171,271,337,338。參見 Descartes,Rene complex behavior as nondeterministic in,非確定性複雜行為。(參見 Volition) Goldberg's model an extrapolation of, 戈德堡外推模型,241 proposing different origins for complex and simple behavior,簡單行為與複雜行為的不同起源,2731,36-38 Sherrington's paradigm as an extrapolation of,謝林頓正規化外推法,68 simple actions as deterministic in,確定性簡單活動,28,36-38,111112,271。(參見 Reflex) as a synthesis of scientific determinism and Platonism,科學決定論和柏拉圖主義的綜合,27-31,3638,180 Cartesian model of the reflex,笛卡兒反射模型,28, 36 - 38,37,177, 268, 337,338 Cartesian robotics,笛卡兒機械,7-8。 參見 Clockwork systems Celestial mechanics,笛卡兒機械論, 193,198 Central nervous system (CNS),中樞神經系統,88,100。參見 Nervous system; Neural architecture as a global hierarchical system,全域性性 • 295•
決策、不確定性和大腦一神經經濟學等級體系,95,101,103,108-109 organizing both simple and complex behaviors,組織簡單行為和複雜行為,93,95,130 reafferent signals in,再內導信號,90-93 Cerebral cortex,大腦皮層。參見 Parietal cortex surgical separation of right and left hemispheres,左右半球手術分離, 150-151 Charnov,Eric L.,恰爾諾夫,艾裡克.L,241 -242,288。參見 Foraging theory optimality model of foraging,最優覓食模型,209-210,212-217 Chevalier de Mere,梅雷爵士,182。參見 Pascal,Blaise Choice,選擇。參見 Decision making; Intention Church,教會。參見 Protestant reformation; Roman Catholic Church Ciaramitaro, Vivian, E. L. Cameron, and P. W. Glimcher,希爾拉米特羅, 維維安,E.L.卡梅倫和 P.W. 格菜姆齊,324,328 Classical economic theory,經典經濟理論,177 descriptive of foraging behavior,對覓食行為的描述,294 not accounting for effects of an intelligent opponent,無法解釋智慧型對手的作用,276-277 rational choice theory,理性選擇理論,256,258,262,264- 265, 320 uncertainty and,不確定性,177, • 296• 207 utility functions,效用函式,262, 281。(參見 Expected utility) Classical Greece,古希臘。參見 Medical physiology of ancient Greece;Philosophy of ancient Greece Clockwork systems,時鐘結構。參見 Determinism; Robotics analytic mathematics and,數學分析, 35-36,40-44,53 Carrtesian robotics and,笛卡兒機器,7-8 coin flipping machine, 275-276 擲幣機 as a model of biological organisms, 生物體模型,37,45,61- 62, 69,71,205-206, 272, 345 Cognitive factors,認知因素,249。參見 Attention; Complex behavior anticipation,預期,245-246,249 consciousness,意識,342-344 Cognitive neuroscience,認知神經科學, 167,235 Coin flipping machine,擲幣機。參見 “Points problem,” 275-276 Colby, Carol L.,attentive fixation task,科爾比,L。卡羅爾,集中注視任務,237 -239,238,248,255 Colby,Carol L., J-R. Duhamel and M.E.Goldberg,科爾比,L.卡羅爾,J-R. 杜阿姆和 M.E. 戈德堡 peripheral attention task study,外圍注意力研究,247- 250,248 Command hypothesis,指令假設,234, 235-237,241 vs.attentional enhancement hypothesis,注意力強化假設,240241,242-243, 245
Command structures in eyemovement, 眼球運動的指令結構,127 in the parietal cortex,在大腦皮層中,235-237 Competition,競爭。參見 Biological competition; Game theory Complex behavior involving irreducible uncertainty,不可約簡的不確定性復雜行為,307,313,318 limits of reflexology in explaining,反射論在解釋時的侷限性,67,95, 96,130,309 as organizationally unified with simple behavior,與簡單行為的有機結合,93 the physiology of,生理學,313 as the sum of a set of reflex operators (reflexological model),作為一系列反射運算元的組合(反射論模型),67 Complex systems,複雜系統,159 convergent evolution in,趨同進化, 164-167 reflexological model unable to account for behavior of,無法用反射論模型解釋的行為,95,96 Computability,可計算性,73。參見 Turing,Alan M. computability theorem and the computable domain,可計算性定理與可計算範圍,113-114 noncomputable concepts,不可計算的概念,74 Computational approach to neuroscience 神經科學的計算方法 comprising a critique of the reflexological paradigm,包含對反射論範式的批評,132-135 索引 global computation theory (Marr), 整體計算理論,131 -133,141, 141 - 143,166,171,202, 255, 300 mathematical theory of perceptrons (Minsky and Papert),感知器的數學原理,135-137 measuring and describing biological systems,生物系統的測度和描述, 154-155 top-down model in,由上而下模型, 138-139。(參見 Marr, David) Computational goals,計算目標 argument against optimization in biological systems,與生物系統最優化相對立的觀點,153- 154 defining for neurological systems, 神經學系統的確定,137-138,140141,143 - 144,199 - 201, 255,320 functionalist approach as a basis for defining,基於機能主義方法論, 145- 146,154- 156 lacking in the reflexological paradigm, 反射論正規化所缺乏的,139-140 phototransduction as an example of, 光轉換例項,156-159 question of whether evolution produces,是否是進化導致的問題, 151-154,154,155-156,156 as related to evolutionary fitness,與進化適應性相關,156-159,171, 255,266 - 268,320。(參見 Ecological goals; Inclusive fitness) Computing,計算 Babbage's mechanical computer (never built),巴比奇的機械計算器(未 • 297•
決策、不確定性和大腦製成),52-53 Rosenblatt's machines,羅森布拉特的機器,135-136 Universal Turing Machine,普適圖靈機,73-74,113,136 Conduction,傳導 as the function of the nervous system, 作為神經系統的功能,63,80, 81,82,88 as a principle of the reflexological paradigm,作為反射論正規化的原則, 81,109,122 in the stimulus-response relationship, 在刺激一反應關係中,81, 109,122 Consciousness,意識,342-344 Convergent evolution of anole lizards, 蜥蜴的趨同進化,163-164 of cichlid fishes,麗魚,159- 163, 160,162 in complex systers,複雜系統, 164-167 Copernican system,哥白尼體系,20 Cornea,角膜,158 Cortex,皮層。參見 Parietal cortex; Primary visual cortex (V1) cerebral cortex (right and left hemispheres)大腦皮層(左右半腦), 150-151 motor cortex,運動皮層,105-106 MT area (network model of),MT 區域(網路模型),126-130,127 Cost-benefit analysis, 成本 -收益分析,208 in foraging theory, 覓食策略, 213217 Council of Trent,彌撒協會,179 •298• 一神經經濟學 Counterreformation,反改革,29,179 Creed,R. S. et al.,克里德,R. S. 等, 86 Cued saccade experiment,暗示性掃視轉實驗,251-256,252,254 valuation in,評價,261 -263,262 Cutaneous withdrawal response as involving independent modules,包含獨立模組的皮膚收縮反應,147 as a unified suite of behavioral responses,一系列行為反應的有機組合, 147-148 Darwin, Charles, on. natural selection, 達爾文,查爾斯,關於自然選擇,152, 174,207,286。參見 Evolution Decision-making behavior,決策行為, 199,263 - 266,321 - 322。參見 Optimal behavior; Neural encoding of probability; Strategic behavior;.Valuation; Volition in an exchange situations,在一個存在交換的環境中,277-278 in behavioral ecology,行為生態學, 207-208 optimal solutions in,最優解,200, 312 probability theory and,機率論, 177-178 rational choice theory,理性選擇理論, 256,258,262,264-265,320 Decision theoretic mathematics,決策論數學,289 Democritus, materialist determinism in, 德謨克利特,唯物主義決定論,1213,27 Descartes,Rene,笛卡兒,勒內,5,
6,7。參見 Cartesian dualism his synthesis of determinism and body-soul dualism,決定論與身心二元論的綜合,27-31,36-38 influenced by the body-soul dualism of Galen,受伽林身心二元論的影響,16 mechanistic physiology of,機械生理學,7-8,37,67,177,268, 337,338。(參見 Reflex) posing different origins for complex and simple behaviors,xix,提出簡單行為和複雜行為的不同起源, 27, 28, 36-38 relationship with the Church,與教會的關係,7,30,39 on volition as the "action of the soul”, 關於意志是心靈的活動,28,39, 180,299-300。(參見 Volition) Determinate mathematics,確定性數學, 40,55,338。參見 Calculus applied in neurophysiology,應用於神經生理學,44,171,268 and clockwork systems,時鐘系統, 35- 36,40-41 determinism in geometry,幾何決定論,33-36 internal contradiction in, 內在矛盾,59 limitations in real-world application of,實際應用中的侷限性,55, 72, 177,200 recursive statements in,遞迴性陳述,72-73 used in the reflexological paradigm,應用於反射論正規化,153,271-272 Determinism,決定論。參見 Clockwork 索引 systers; Monist determinism in ancient thought,在古代思想中, 12-13,27 in the biological sciences,在生物科學中,33,272 irreducible uncertainty and,不可約簡的不確定性,268 in the physical sciences,在物理學中,33,44,205。(參見 Newtonian physics) Deterministic behavior,確定性行為, 36,69,111-112。參見 Reflex in the billiard ball world,在臺球世界中,172-176,173,176 matching law equation and,匹配原則方程,263-264,272-273 the reflex as a neurophysiological model for,作為神經心理學模型的反射,45 - 46,60,61,65,66, 67, 82,94 whether unpredictable behavior is potentially,是否潛藏著不可預測行為,13,27,39- 40, 51,69, 178-179 Distributed cue experiment,分散式暗示實驗,251,252,254-255 Dogs Pavlov's study of the salivary reflex in,巴甫洛夫關於唾液反射的研究,71 Sherrington's study of scratch response in,謝林頓關於“搔癢反應”的研究,65-66 Dopominergic neurons,多巴胺能神經元,332-333 Dorris, Michael C.and P. W. Glimcher, work or shirk game exper- •299•
決策、不確定性和大腦—神經經濟學 iment,杜瑞斯,邁克爾 C.和 P. W. 格萊姆齊,工作或曠工遊戲實驗,304,314,318 Dualism,二元論。參見 Cartesian dualism body-soul dualism in Galen and Hippocrates,伽林和希波克拉底的身心二元論,13-14,15 Platonic dualism,柏拉圖的二元論, 12-13 Dunbar,Robin I. M.,鄧巴,羅賓1. M.,208 Dynamic processes,動態過程 the "dynamic problem” in motion,運動的“動態”問題,108 equilibrium model of,均衡模型,287288,297 Ecological biology,生態生物學。參見 Behavioral ecology,206,222 Ecological goals,生態目標。參見 Ecological biology; Inclusive fitness ofbiological organisms,生物體,143144,171- 172, 200- 202,255,319 ecological adaptation of cichlid fishes, 麗魚的生態適應性,159- 164, 160,162 as the foundation of neureconomics, 神經經濟學的基礎,267 - 268, 338 involving calculation of probability and valuation,包含機率計算和估價,255,267 whether neural computation can achieve,神經計算是否可以達到, 151- 154, 154, 155 - 156, 156, 171,255,266-268,320。(參見 • 300• Computational goals) Fconomic theory,經濟理論。參見 Classical economic theory; Game theory;Global rationality; Neuroeconomic model applied to organismic goals,應用於生物體的目標,199-202 in behavioral ecology,行為生態學, 271-272,318, 319-320 as a tool in exploring the brainbehavior link,研究大腦一行為聯絡的工具,202-203 Enlightenment,啟蒙運動 birth of the scientific method and modern science in,科學方法和現代科學的誕生,20-22,33-36, 299- 300 the challenge of ancient authority leading to,對先賢的挑戰導致, 9,16,17,19 development of experimental physiology,實驗生理學的發展,22-24, 25,26-27 Environmental uncertainty,環境的不確定性,276,317- 318 Episteric uncertainty,認識的不確定性,175 - 177,176,268,272, 275。參見 Irreducible uncertainty Ba yes theorem and,貝葉斯定理, 193-194 existence of foundational in neuroeconomics,神經經濟學基礎的存在, 338- 339 in gare theory,博弈論,281-282 in Laplacian theory,拉普拉斯理論,198 Equilibrium approach,均衡方法,282,
283,303 -306。參見 Nash equilibrium limitations of the,侷限性,287-288 Equilibrium conditions,均衡條件,286 neuronal firing rates under,神經元啟用比率,315-317, 316 Evarts,Edward V.,伊瓦特斯,愛德華V.,234 Evolution,進化。參見 Convergent evolution; Ecological goals; Natural selection of biological organisms,生物體, 143, 151,166,338 and modularity,模組化,145 probability and,機率,205 Expected utility,期望效用,256, 262,281 expected-value theory,期望值理論, 188-191 human utility curve,人類效用曲線, 191,192 saccadic eye movements suggesting calculation of,眼睛掃視運動揭示, 262- 263,314-315 as valuation,價值,281,314-315 Experimental method,實驗方法,20-22 experimental approach to physiology, 心理學實驗方法,22,23-27 Experimental reflexology,實驗反射論 cutaneous withdrawal response,皮膚收縮反應,146-147 eye movement studies,眼部運動研究,126-130,127,232-234 parietal cortex studies,大腦皮層研究,225 sensory deprivation experiments,消除感覺的實驗,83-86 sensory signals as exteroceptive and 索引 interoceptive in,內外感受性訊號, 81-82,83 the Sherringtonian receptor,謝林頓感受器,232-233 spinal reflexes and three-layer perceptrons,脊髓反射與三層感知器,116 “'spinal step” experiments, 83,84 - 85,85 “脊髓行進”實驗 External stimulus,外部刺激 as the cause of apparent volition (Sherrington),顯性選擇的原因 (謝林頓),82 as connected to a global organismic goal (Weiss),聯絡整體有機體的目標,100-101 Extrareflexive mechanisms,外部反射性機制,104,112-113 “half-center” oscillators, “半中心” 振盪器,85,85-86,95 reafference,再內導,88 - 93,92, 95,129 Eye movement,眼部運動。參見 Visual-saccadic processing; Saccadic eye movements Feedback systems in the nervous system,神經系統的反饋體系。參見 Reafference Fermat,Pierre de,費瑪,皮埃爾• 德,183 Fish, convergent evolution in cichlid fishes,魚,麗魚的趨同進化,159164,160,162 Fixation task,注視任務,237- 239, 238, 248,255 Fodor,Jerry A.,福多,傑瑞 A.,148 • 301•
決策、不確定性和大腦一神經經濟學 Fodorian modules,福多模組,149150 Foraging behavior,覓食行為,206-207, 217 in birds and ducks,鳥與鴨,207, 218,218- 221,294-297 decision-making variables in,決策變量,210-211,213-217,220 group foraging observations,群體覓食觀察,294-297 Foraging theory,覓食理論,208, 217,288, 319。參見 Bacterium foraging strategy,覓食策略 cost-benefit analysis in,成本一收益分析,213-217 empirical tests of,經驗檢驗,217, 218- 221 fusion of economics and behavioral studies in,經濟學與行為研究的融合,208-211,217 prey model of,捕食模型,210, 211, 212-217,222 prey model testing experiment,捕食模型檢驗實驗,218,218-221 Free-choice task experiments,自由選擇任務實驗,264-266,266 Free will,自由意志。參見 Volition as an illusion, 27,180, 340 - 342。 (參見 Determinism) Jansenist perspective on,詹森主義觀點,340 Jesuit perspective on,耶穌會觀點, 179- 180,340 subjective experience of,主觀經驗, 300,301,309,341 Frege, F.L.Gottlob,弗雷格,F.L. 哥特洛布,58,59,94 • 302• Functionality,功能性。參見 Ecological goals algorithmic level corresponding to, 在演算法層面,343-344 associational functions of the cortex,皮層的聯絡功能,233,234,235237, 241 function of the nervous system,神經系統的功能,140 -141,143, 174- 175,199-202 goals of neural computation based in, 神經運算的目標,154-156 neural architecture and,神經結構, 145- 146,155 utility function,效用函式,189191,192,199 - 200, 202 Galen,Claudius,克勞迪厄斯•伽林, 9-11 body-soul dualism in,身心二元論, 13-14,15,23,31 on the brain-body connection,大腦和身體間的聯絡,14-15 on the pneuma,論呼吸,15 theories unchallenged until the Renaissance,文藝復興之前未受到挑戰的理論,16,17,19 theory of medical physiology,醫學生理學理論,11-12,13,14 Galilei, Galieo,伽利略 • 伽利雷,9, 22-23 charged with heresy by the Church, 被教會指為異端,22-23,29-30 and the development of the scientific method,科學方法的發展,22 Gall, Franz Joseph,加爾,弗朗茲• 約瑟夫,150
Galvani,Luigi, on electrical stimulation of the nervous syster,伽伐尼,易吉, 關於神經系統的電刺激,44-45 Game theory,博弈論,276,282, 297。參見 See also Mixed strategy solutions; Opponent actions ability to address real-world uncertainty in,處理真實世界的不確定性的能力,271,273,288,313。 (參見 Irreducible uncertainty; World states) can model but not explain dynamic Processes in,動態過程建模, 287- 288, 297 development of,發展,277 - 278, 282,314,339 expected utility calculation in,期望效用計算,281,315-318, 316 game of.chicken as an example of,以鬥雞博弈為例,282-286,283 the Holmes-Moriarty game,福爾摩斯-莫里亞蒂博弈,279t,279-282 non-zero sum games,非零和博弈, 282t,282-287(參見 Nash equilibrium) single play games,一次性博弈,288 symmetric vs. asymmetric games,對稱與非對稱博弈,286,296 the zero-sum game,零和博弈,278279,278- 281,279t,282 Gaming odds,博弈機率,178,185 - 186。參見 Probabilistic mathematics Gaze aligning movements,矯正注視運動,229 Gaze stabilization movements,平穩注視運動,229 Gazzaniga,Michael S.,伽扎尼加,邁克索引爾S.,148-149,150,151 Geometry,幾何學 determinism in,決定論,33-36 terrestrial,地球的,44 Gigerenzer,Gerd,齊格倫茲,傑德,335 Global computation,整體計算 cutaneous withdrawal as a unified suite of behavioral responses,作為一系列行為反應組合的皮膚收縮, 147-148 Marr's formulation of,瑪爾公式, 131 - 133,137, 139,151,166, 171,202, 255,300 Global rationality,完全理性,199 Global structure of neural architecture, 神經的鍪體結構,103 Gnadt, James W.and R. A. Andersen memory saccade experiments,戈納德特和安德森的記憶掃視實驗, 245, 246, 247 Goal-oriented behavior,目標導向行力。 參見 Computational goals; Ecological goals anticipatory saccadic eye movements, 可預測的眼睛掃視運動,245246,249 defining in animals,對動物的定義, 100-101,171,255,319 neural architecture organized to achieve,神經結構組織,100101,171,255,319 Godel, Kurt, Godel's theorem,哥德爾,哥德爾定理,72-73,75 Goldberg,Michael E. 戈德堡,邁克爾 E.,參見 Attentional enhancement hypothesis eye movement trials,眼部運動實驗, • 303•
決策、不確定性和大腦一 237 - 239, 238 model of the parietal cortex,大腦皮層模型,235 -237,239- 240, 242 peripheral attention task,外圍注意力實驗,247-250,248 Gold, Josh I. and M. Shadlen,studies of maximum likelihood analysis in monkeys,戈德,喬希1.和 M. 謝德林,關於猴子的極大似然分析的研究,329 -330 Gould, Steven J.and R.C. Lewontin, 古爾德,斯蒂芬J.和 R.C. 列萬廷, 153-154 Greece (ancient),古希臘。參見 Medical physiology of ancient Greece;Philosophy of ancient Greece Group foraging behavior,群體覓食行為,207,218, 218-221,294-297 “Half-center'” oscillators,“半中心”振蕩器,85,85-86,95 Hall, Marshall 霍爾,馬歇爾 brain(volition)vs. spinal cord(reflex) model of,大腦(意志)與脊髓(反射)模型,49- 51 deterministic perspective of the nervous system,神經系統的確定性觀點,45 - 46, 60, 61,65,66, 67,206- 206 Harper, D.G.C.,study of group foraging of ducks,哈珀,D.G. C. 鴨子群體覓食研究,294-297 Harvey, William C.,experimental approach to physiology,哈維,威廉 C.,生理學實驗方法,22,2327,25 •304• -神經經濟學 Hawk-dove game,鷹鴿博弈,289,289293,290,291 Hebb,Donald O.,赫布,唐納德O., 114,135 Hebbian learning,赫布學習法則,114115 Hemispheric specialization,腦半球的分工,150- 151 Herrnstein,Richard J.赫恩斯坦,理查德J. on epistemic uncertainty,認識的不確定性,272 matching law equation,匹配法則等式,263-264,272-273 melioration theory,改善理論,266 Hidden neurons,連線神經元,116,117 Hierarchical structure of neural architectures,神經體系的等級結構,95, 101,103,108 Hilbert,David,propositions and number theory,希爾伯特,大衛,命題和數論,59-60, 72,74 Hippocratic tradition,希波克拉底傳統,10,13-14 Holling's disc equation,霍林的圓盤方程,211 Holmes-Moriarty game,福爾摩斯一莫里亞蒂博弈,279t,279-282Horseshoe crabs, recoding of sensory data in,當,感覺資料的重新編碼, 165 Human behavior,人類行為。參見 Behavior; Brain-behavior link as free vs. deterministic,自由與確定性,49-51(參見 Deterministic behavior;Free will) Hume,David, on the potential deter-
minism of unpredictable behavior,休謨,大衛,不可預知行為潛在的確定性,39-40,69 Huygens,Christiaan,惠更斯,克里斯蒂安,184 Inclusive fitness,內在適應度,172, 207,267。參見 Evolution; Optimal behavior behavioral/computational goals as the maximization of,行為(計算)目標,148,174-175,200,202 defined,確定的,172n.1 favoring mixed behavioral strategies, 混合行為策略,286-287 gaining territorial advantage,獲得領地優勢,291-292 vs.minimal complexity approach,最小複雜性方法,172-175 Incomplete knowledge,不完備的知識。 參見 Epistemic uncertainty Indeterminate behavior. See Nondeterministic behavior,不確定性行為 Information theory,資訊理論,129, 164 Inhibitory vs. excitatory neurons,抑制與激發神經元,65- 67 Inspect or no-inspect trials,監視與非監視實驗。參見 Work or shirk game,312-313 Inteligent opponents,智慧型對手。參見 Opponent actions Intention,目的。參見 Command hypothesis; Volition changingplans in saccadic movements, 在掃視運動中改變計劃,249-250 motor-intentional hypothesis,運動一索目標假設,244,253,255 premovement activity in saccadic eye movements suggesting,眼睛掃視運動之前的行為,245-246,249 vs. attention as sensory enhancement, 感覺強化,242,245,249,250251。(參見 Command hypothesis) Internuncial neurons,中間聯絡神經元, 232 Irreducible uncertainty,不可約簡的不確定性。參見 Unpredictable behavior in the billiard ball world,在臺球世界裡,273-276,274 complex behavior involving,複雜行為,307,313,318 existence of foundational in neureconomics,神經經濟學基礎的存在, 339-340 and game theory,博弈論,271, 273, 282, 288-289,313 in mixed strategy solutions,混合策略解,286-287 necessity of,必要性,292-293 in the real world,真實世界,276, 317-318 James, William,詹姆斯,威廉,323 Jansen,Cornelius O.,詹森,O. 康那理惟士,179-180 Jansenists,詹森主義者,179-180 Jasper,Herbert H.,賈斯帕,H.赫伯特,234 Jesuit order, and the notion of free will (16th century),耶穌會,自由意志觀念(16世紀),179-180 Kepler,Johannes,開普勒,約翰尼斯, • 305•
決策、不確定性和大腦29,36,40 Kinematics,運動學,107-108,109 Kornmuller, A. E.,eye-world orientation experiment,科恩米勒,A.E., 眼睛定位實驗,91 -93,92 Krebs,John R.,克雷布斯,R. 約翰, 207- 208 mealworm foraging experiment,幼蟲覓食實驗,217-221,218 Kuhn,Thomas S.,庫恩,S. 托馬斯, xvii Lagrange,Joseph-Louis,analytic calculus of,拉格朗日,約瑟夫•路易斯,分析微積分,41-42,53 Laplace,Pierre-Simon,拉普拉斯,皮埃爾•西蒙,42-44,43,191,197 calculations of the solar system,太陽系的計算,43-44 on deterministic behavior,關於確定性行為,69 inverse probability theory,逆機率定理,197-198 the Laplacian coin,拉普拉斯擲幣, 275-276 superintelligence thesis of,超智慧論題,268 Lateral geniculate nucleus,外側膝狀神經元,227,227-228,232 Lateral inraparietal area. See LIP neuronal activity,外側膝狀區域,見LIP 神經元活動 Learning processes,學習過程 learning prior probabilities, 學習先驗機率,330-332 optimal behavior and,最優行為, 264-265 • 306• -神經經濟學 Leibniz, Gottfried W.,戈特弗裡德• W•萊布尼茲,187 on mathematics as the basis for a scientific method,關於數學作為科學方法的基礎,34-36 proposing a universal logical symbolic system,提出普遍適用的邏輯符號體系,35,55-56 Light perception,光的感知。參見 Retina; Topographic mapping analysis of light patterns,光帶的繪圖分析,228232 bright/dim discrimination,亮暗識別,324-328 detection of photons,光子的發現, 156-159 photoreceptors,光感受器,122,226, 228 LIP neuronal activity,L.IP 區神經元的活動,248-249,250 activity in matching behavior,匹配行為活動,265- 266,266 discriminating between goal and distractor,識別目標和干擾項,253254,254 encoding expected utility of movements, 運動的期望效用編碼,313-314, 315-317,316 encoding posterior probabilities,後驗機率編碼,259-260,260 encoding prior probabilities,先驗概率編碼,258-259,260,260-261 encoding probability,機率編碼,256261,257 firing rates,啟用率,227 single-neuron L.IP studies, 對LIP單一神經元的研究,251- 252,261262,262 Logical-symbolic system,邏輯符號體系。參見 Calculus; Determinate mathematics Frege Russell debate on,弗雷格-羅素爭論,58-59 proposed by Leibniz,萊布尼茲提出, 55- 56 Luther, Martin,路德,馬丁,179 MacArthur, Robert H.and E. R. Pianka,on foraging theory,麥克阿瑟,羅伯特 H. 和E.K. 皮安卡, 覓食理論,208-209 McCollough,Warren S.and W.Pitts, 麥卡洛克,沃倫和 W.皮茲,113, 114 Magendie,Francois,馬戎弟,弗朗西絲,50 Mapping in vision,檢視。參見 Topographic mapping Marr,David,瑪爾,戴維,133-135, 134,155,167。參見 Computational approach global computation theory,整體計算理論,131 -133,137, 151,166, 171,202, 255,300 goal-oriented approach to neurobiologY,神經生物學的目標導向方法, 138-139,165 problematic aspects of his theory,理論的問題,143,143-144,153155,171-172 Matching behbavior,匹配行為 neural activity in,神經活動,265266,266 as a suboptimal solution,次優解, 索 268-266 Matching law equation,匹配法則等式, 263-264,272-273 Mate selection studies,擇偶研究, 208,319 Matheratics,數學。參見 Determinate matheratics; Probabilistic mathematics decision theoretic mathematics,決策論數學,289 geometrical mathematics and physics, 幾何數學和物理學,33-36 theory of perceptrons,感知器理論, 135-137 Maximizing behavior,最大化行為, 264-265 Maynard Smith,John.梅納德•史密斯,約翰。參見 Game theory hawk-dove game,鷹鴿博弈,289, 289-293,290,291t theory of games,博弈論,289, 292, 293,339 Mechanistic approaches,機械論方法。 參見 Clockwork systems;Determinism;Physics; Robotics astronomical mechanics,天體力學, 193,198 Enlightenment science and,啟蒙科學,7-9,21-22,27-31 mechanistic physiology,機械生理學,13,24,26 Medical physiology of ancient Greece, 古希臘的醫學生理學 Galen and medical physiology,伽林和醫學生理學,9-12,13,14-16 Hippocratic tradition,希波克拉底傳統,10,13-14 preserved in scholasticism,經院哲 • 307•
決策、不確定性和大腦學,9 Medieval scholastic tradition,中世紀的經院哲學傳統。參見 Scholasticism Memory,記憶 memory foration,記憶形成,234 memory-linked sensorimotor activity, 與記憶相關的感覺運動,245, 246,247 as stored representation,作為已知的現狀,172,199 Minsky,Marvin L.,明斯基,L、馬文, 117 Minsky,Marvin L. and S. A. Papert, mathematical theory of perceptrons, 明斯基,L. 馬文和 S A.佩珀特, 感知器的數學理論,135-137 Mittelstaedt,Horst,米特爾斯德特,霍斯特,88 Mixed strategy solutions,混合策略解, 342 irreducible uncertainty in,不可約簡的不確定性,286-287,293 suboptimal behavior in,次優行為, 285- 287 Modularity,模組化 function and,功能,145- 146,166167 in neural processing,神經處理過程, 143- 144,148- 149,164- 165, 166。(參見 Neural architecture) neurobiological module,神經生物學模組,146,150-151,154 psychological modules,心理學模組, 149- 150 of sensory vs. decisional systems,感覺和決策系統,200,323 -324, 328 • 308• -神經經濟學 Monkey,猴子。參見 Primate brain; Primate vision, experimental studies Monist determinism,一元決定論,74, 317- 318,337 - 338。 參見 Deterministic behavior in Laplace,拉普拉斯,71 in Pavlov,巴甫洛夫,69-72, 111, 114,272,273 vs. free will,自由意志,340-342 Morgenstern,Oskar,摩根斯坦,奧斯卡,277 Motion,運動。參見 Reflex; Saccadic eye movements calculus of motion,運動演算法,106107 kinematic vs. dynamic problems in, 運動學和動力學問題,107-108 motor cortex,運動皮層,105,105106 muscle contraction,肌肉收縮,9899,100- 103 Motor-intentional hypothesis,運動目的假設,241 Mountcastle,Vernon B. 茂特凱索, B. 弗農 command hypothesis,指令假設, 235 -237,241 study of parietal cortex,對大腦皮層的研究,234 -237,236,240 MT, cortical area,大腦皮質區域 network model of,網路模型,126130,127 sensory neurons in,感覺神經元, 125,126,128,129- 130 Muscle contraction, 肌肉收縮,9899,100- 103 kinematic vs. dynamic problems in,
運動學和動力學問題,107-108 Nash,John F., equilibrium approach of, 納什,F.約翰,均衡方法,282, 283,287 - 288, 288,303- 306 Nash equilibrium,納什均衡,284 - 285,303-304 in describing animal behavior, 動物行為描述,286,295 -297,314317,316 equilibrium conditions,均衡條件, 286 in single play games,一次性博弈, 288 strategic behavior resulting in conditions of,策略行為引致條件, 305-308 Natural selection,自然選擇,207208,209 Darwin on,達爾文,152,174, 207,286 Necessity,Pavlov's dictum of,必要性,巴甫洛夫格言,71,128,131, 241,259 Nervous system,神經系統。參見Central nervous system (CNS);Neural architecture conduction functions of,傳導功能, 63,80, 81,82,88。 (參見 Reflexological paradigm) evolutionary perspective on function of,功能的進化前景,174-175 generative functions vs. conduction in, 生成功能與傳導,82,87- 88, 100,108-109 levels of description of (Marr),描述水平,140-143,141 索引 nonsensory/nonmotor processes in, 非感覺/非運動過程,236-237, 267 Sherrington's model of,謝林頓模型, 63-68。(參見 Reflexological paradigm) NetTalk system,網路談話系統,113, 117-119,118 backpropagation algorithm,反向傳輸演算法,119-120 reflex-based analogues in,基於反射的類似物,121-122,129 Neural activity,神經活動。參見 Neuronal activity Neural architecture,神經結構,137138,141,147-149。參見Modularity; Neural network models functionality and,功能性,145-146 as global and hierarchical,整體和等級,95,101,103,108 neural synapses,神經突觸,114115,116 neurobiological modules,神經生物學模組,143-144,146,150 organized to achieve behavioral goals, 被組織以達到行為目標,100101,171,255,319 right and left hemispheres,左右半腦,150-151 Neural computation,神經計算 defining ecological goals of,確定生態學的目標,154,156,171, 255,266-268,320 Neural encoding of probability,神經的機率編碼,256-261,257,284。參見 Bayesian probability estimation; Nash equilibrium • 309•
決策、不確定性和大腦一神經經濟學 encoding instantaneous probability, 瞬時機率編碼,260 encoding posterior probabilities, 後驗機率編碼,259-260,260 encoding prior probabilities,先驗概率編碼,258 - 259,260,260261 Neural encoding of value,神經的價值編碼,261,266。參見 Valuation in the cued saccade experiment,在暗示性掃視實驗中,261 -263,262 as expected utility,期望效用,281, 314-315 Neural feedback systems,神經反饋系統。參見 Reafference Neural network models,神經網路模型 hidden neurons in,隱藏神經元,116, 117 inhibitory neurons in,抑制神經元, 127 internuncial or interneurons in,中間神經元,117,120- 121 perceptron modlel,感知器模型,115117,116,135 reliance on reflex-based architecture in,依靠基於反射的結構,113114,115,117,120-121 sensory vs. motor neurons in,感覺和運動神經元,117,119 Neurobiological architecture,神經生物學結構。參見 Neural architecture Neurobiological models of the brain based in determinate mathematics,基於確定性數學的大腦神經生物學模型。(參見 Determinate mathematics; Reflexological model) based in probabilistic mathematics, •310• 基於機率論數學(參見 Neuroeconomic approach) top-down approach,由上而下方法 (參見 Computational approach) Neurobiology,神經生物學 goal-oriented approach to,目標導向的方法,138-139,165 modularity approaches in,模組化方法,143 - 144,146,150- 151, 154 reflexological paradigm still dominant in,反射論正規化的統治,78-79, 95,103-104,109,112- 113 Neuroeconomic model,神經經濟學模型,169,202, 205,319, 336,344 describing choice-behavior,描述選擇行為,321 - 322(參見 Decisionmaking behavior) goals in,目標,255-256,258-259 (參見 Intention; Ecological goais) learning prior probabilities in,學習先驗機率,330-332 probability in,機率,25-56(參見 Probability theory) theoretical framework,理論框架, xvili- xx valuation in,價值,256,321 - 322, 332 -334(參見 Valuation) visual attention in, 視覺注意力,323328 visual motion in, 視覺運動,328330 Neuroeconomics as a theory of the brain,神經經濟學是關於大腦的理論,322 an experimental program, 一個實驗程式,323 -332
limits of the theory,理論的侷限性, 334 philosophical implications of,哲學含義,337 Neuronal activity,神經元的活動。參見 Neurons ecological goals of,154, 156,255 encoding probability,機率編碼,256 (參見 Neural encoding of probability) encoding value-estimations,價值估計編碼,261,266(參見 Valuation) firing rates under equilibrium conditions, 均衡條件下的啟用率,315-317, 316 and game theory,博弈論,299,317 as global or local processes,全域性或區域性過程,140,150-151 leftward vs. rightward moving neural populations,左右運動神經元總體,126-129 in memory formation,記憶形式, 234 in the parietal cortex,大腦皮層, 229,233 - 237, 236,244-245 self-activating neurons,自激發的神經元,94-95 single- neuron recording of, 單一的神經元記錄,234,235,236 Neurons,神經元 dopaminergic neurons,多巴胺能神經元,332-333 as excitatory or inhibitory,激發或抑制,65-67 hidden neurons,隱藏神經元,116, 117 internuncial neurons,中間神經元, 索 232 lateral geniculate neurons,外側膝狀神經元,227-228 orientation-selective neurons,方位選擇神經元,122- 123 retinal neurons,視網膜神經元,226228 Neurophysiology,神經生理學,166。 參見 Ecological goals;Neuroeconomic model; Reflexological paradigm decidingwhere to look,確定向何處看,122 moving beyond reflex theory in,超越反射理論,108,111,140 Neuroscience,神經科學,3,4-5 experimenter's vs. subject's view in, 實驗者與受試者的觀點,130 research selection in,研究選擇, 122,129- 130 Newsome, William T.,紐瑟姆,威廉T. the Newsome task,紐瑟姆任務, 123-125,124 studies of saccadic eye movement in rhesus monkeys,對獼猴的眼球掃視運動的研究,122,123-126, 124,328-329 Newtonian physics, 牛頓物理學,3536,40- 41, 43。 參見 Clockwork systems Newton,Isaac,牛頓,艾薩克,35 Nondeterministic behavior,不確定性行為,242。參見 Cartesian dualism complex behavior as,複雜行為,28, 38-40,68-69,93,111- 112, 180,271,338 whether irreducibly uncertain behavior is,不可約簡的不確定性行為, • 311•
決策、不確定性和大腦一 293-294 Non-zero sum games,零和博弈。參見 Nash equilibrium,282t.,282-287 Number theory,數論,59-60 Opponent actions,對抗行動,274 - 275, 278, 281 classicaleconomic theory not accounting for,經典經濟學理論未能解釋,276-277 expected utility calculations and,期望效用計算,281-282 Optimal behavior,最優行為,202 in allocation of attention,注意力配置,323-325,328 in an exchange situation,交換狀態, 277-278 argument that biological organisms cannot attain,認為生物體無法達到,153-154 in game theory,博弈論,274-275, 287 learning processes and,學習過程, 264- 265 organismic goals and,生物體目標, 201-202 risk avoidance and,風險規避,189190,221-222 Optimality modeling,最優性建模,207208,222- 223,289 failure of the zero-one rule in, 0-1 法則的失誤,220,221-222 of Laplace,拉普拉斯,198 of Pascal,帕斯卡,185-186,187189 probability theory and,機率論, 185,186 • 312• -神經經濟學 Organic design,生物體的設計,151152 Organisms,生物體。參見 Biological organisms Orientation-selective neurons,方位選擇神經元,122-123 Parietal cortex,大腦皮層。參見 LIP neuronal activity;Posterior parietal cortex area 7,第七區域,245(參見 LIP neuronal activity) associational functions of,協作功能, 233, 234, 235-237,241 as a command apparatus,指令器官, 235-237 neuronal activity in,神經元的活動, 229, 233-237, 236, 244-245 positing of nonsensory/nonmotor processes in,非感覺/非運動過程假設,236-237,267 probabilistic modeis of sensorimotor processing in,感覺運動過程的概率模型,225-226 reflexological models of sensorimotor processing in,感覺運動過程的反射論模型,233-234 visual-saccadic function of,掃視功能,233 Pascal,Blaise,帕斯卡,布萊斯,180182,181 developing a calculus of probability, 提出一種機率演算法,186 - 187, 205 his wager on the existence of God,他賭上帝的存在性,184-185 optimality modeling,最優性建模,
185- 186,187- 189 solution of the point problem,點問題的解,182-184 Pavlov,Ivan P.,巴甫洛夫,P. 伊萬, 70 on conditioned reflexes,條件反射, 233 dictum of necessity,必要性格言, 71,128,131, 241,259 monist determinism in,一元決定論, 69 - 72, 111,114,272,273 study of the salivary reflex in dogs, 狗的唾液反射實驗,71 Payoff matrix,支付矩陣,287-288, 305,306 Perceptrons,感知器 based in reflex-based architecture,以反射機制為基礎,115,117 mathematical theory of,數學理論, 135-137 in neural network modeling,神經網絡模型,115,116,117 Peripheral attention task,外圍注意力任務,247-250,248 Philosophy of ancient Greece,古希臘哲學 body-soul dualism in physiology,哲學中的身心二元論,13-14,15 materialism of Democritus vs. Platonic dualism,德謨克利特唯物論與柏拉圖二元論,12-13 Photon detection,光子的發現,156159 Photoreceptors,光感受器,122,226, 228 Phototransduction, as an example of computational goals,光傳導,計算目標示例,156,156-159 索引 Phyletic constraints of biological organisms,生物體種類約束,154,155, 157,166,172,222 Physics,物理學。參見 Clockwork systems Copernican system,哥白尼體系,20 Keplerian system,開普勒體系,29, 36,40 Newtonian physics,牛頓物理學,3536,40-41,43 Physiological monism,生理學一元論。 參見 Monist determinism Physiology,生理學,13,24,26 of complex behavior,複雜行為, 313, 313-317 dissection in the early Renaissance, 文藝復興早期的解剖學,16-17 experiments on blood circulation,血液迴圈實驗,22-24,25,26-27 of Galen,伽林,9-12,13,14-16 the Hippocratic tradition,希波克拉底傳統,10,13-14 study of reflexes in,反射研究,60 (參見 Experimental reflexology) Platonic dualism,柏拉圖二元論,12-13 Platt,Michael L. and P. W.Glimcher,普拉特,L。邁克爾和P.W. 格萊姆齊 distributed cue experiment,分散式暗示實驗,250-255,252 “Points problem”,點問題。參見 Probabilistic mathematics, 182 -184 Posterior parietal cortex as a command apparatus,後腦皮層指令器官,235237,236, 245,247 functioning to establish spatial constancy in vision,保持空間不變性的功能,243-245 • 313•
決策、不確定性和大腦search for sensory attentional enhancement effects in,尋找注意力強化效應,239-240,247,248249 Posterior probability,後驗機率,197 Premovement planning,運動前規劃。 參見 Ecological goals; Intention in saccadic eye movements,眼睛掃視運動,245-246,249 Prey model,捕獵模型,210,211,212217,222 reflex theory vs. decision making in, 反射理論與決策,211-212 testing of,檢驗,218,281-221 Primary vs. proprioceptive reflexes,最初的刺激與本體感受性反射,83, 101 Primary visual cortex (V1),主要的視覺皮層,227,228,232 cortical area MT and,皮質區域, 125,126,128,129- 130 cortical neurons,皮層神經元,122123 frontal eye field and,前葉眼區,229230, 230,232 function of,功能,139 superior colliculus and,上丘229230, 230, 231 - 232, 232,237239 Primate brain,靈長類大腦。參見 Central nervous system (CNS);Cortex; Neural architecture mechanistic or reflexological view of,機械論或反射論觀點,113-114,121-122 parietal cortex studies,大腦皮層研究,234-237,236。(參見 Parietal cortex) •314• 一神經經濟學 • right and left hemispheric function, 左右半腦功能,150~151 ventral-tegmental arca of,內側皮質區,333 visual processing in,視覺訊號處理, 226 whether the brain employs a reflexological process,大腦是否利用反射過程,121-122 Primate vision,experimental studies, 靈長類視覺,實驗研究。參見 Vision bright-dim discrimination,亮暗識別,324-328 coordinate transform experiments,協調轉換實驗,242-245,243 cued saccade experiment,暗示性掃視實驗,251-255,252 distributed cue experiment,分散式暗示實驗,251,252, 254 evidence of utility calculation in,效用計算證據,262-263, 314-315 eye movements studies,眼睛運動研究,234-237,236 free-choice experiments,自由選擇實驗,264-266,266 memory saccade experiments,記憶掃視實驗,245,246,247 saccadic eye movement trials,眼睛掃視實驗,122,123-126, 124,249250,328-329 Peripheral attention task testing, 外圍注意力實驗,247-250,248 Prior probabilities,先驗機率,330 - 332 Probabilistic mathematics,機率論數學。參見 Bayesian theorem;Nash equilibrium; Probability theoryas an
alternative to determinate models, 175,202 calculus of probabilities,機率的計算,205,275-276 conditional probability density function,條件機率密度函式,196 gaming odds,賭博投注,178,185186 the “points problem”,點問題,182184 replacing deterministic models,取代確定性模型,175-177 Probability encoding in neuronal systems,神經系統的機率編碼。參見 Neural encoding of probability Probability theory,機率論,206,256。 參見 Bayesian probability estimation; Uncertainty aleatory uncertainties,偶然不確定性,192-193,198 and decision-making behavior,決策行為,177-178 development of,發展,178,180 - 182 as a foundation of modern economic theory,現代經濟理論的基礎, 199,206 future states as probabilistic,未來的或然性狀態,223,339 historical conditions leading to development of,歷史條件導致的發展, 178-180 modeling future states,對未來狀態建模,185,192-193 as a monistic and potentially deterministic approach,一元論和潛在的確定性方法,340 索引 in neurophysiology,神經生理學, 225 -226, 269,320-321 Protestant reformation,新教徒改革, 179 Random behavior,隨機行為,293-294 Rational choice theory,理性選擇理論, 256,258, 262,264-265,320 Reafference,再內導,88- 90,95, 129 and eye-world rotation (visuomotor behavior),眼睛轉動(視覺運動行為),90-93,92,95 Receptive field properties,接受區域特性,228 Sherringtonian receptor,232-233謝林頓接受器 Recursive statements,遞迴性陳述, 72,74 Reductionism,in the reflexological paradigrn,簡化方法,反射論正規化,132133 Reflex,反射,33,55,87。參見 Experimental reflexology;Reflexological paradigm antagonistic reflexes,相對立的反射, 97-98 afference in,傳人,62-63,64 Descartes conception of,笛卡兒反射概念,28,36 - 38,37,177,268, 337,338 as a model for deterministic behavior, 確定性行為模型,45 - 46,60, 61,65,66,67,82,94 the reflex arc,反射弧,49- 50,6263,68,79 the stretch reflex,拉伸反射,62- •315•
決策、不確定性和大腦一 65,64,78-80 Reflexological paradigm,反射論正規化。 參見 Stimulus-response relationship based partly in Cartesian dualism,部分地以笛卡兒二元論為基礎,6869,255,268-269 experimental challenges to,實驗挑戰,63,78,97- 98,108- 109, 115 conduction principle in,傳導原則, 81,109,122 determinate mathematics used in,確定性數學應用,40,153,271272 dominance in contemporary neurobiology,在當代神經生物學中的統治地位,40,78-79,103- 104, 109,112 - 113(參見 Neural network models) guiding the selection of research questions,指引研究問題的選擇,122, 129-130 lacking a computational theory,缺乏計算理論,141,142-143 minimal complexity approach in,最低綜合方法,55,100,127,172 modularity in,模組性,146-148 Pavlov's dictum of necessity and,巴甫洛夫的必要性格言,71,128, 131,241,259 reductionism in,簡化法,132 -133 robust simplicity of, 高度簡化, 128,131-132 Sherrington's calculus of reflexology, 謝林頓的反射論演算法,60,6163,67- 70, 112,114 vs. decision-making model,決策模 •316• 一神經經濟學型,211-212 Reflexological paradigm, limitations of, 反射論正規化,侷限性,xix-xx,77, 139- 140, 267,309 all determinate behavior may not be accounted for,無法解釋所有的確定性行為,68,69,80 both monist and probabilistic approaches pose challenges to,一元論和機率論方法帶來的挑戰,297,317318 complex behavior and systems not accounted for,複雜行為和系統無法解釋,67,95,96,130,309 inadequate to explain sensorimotor processes,不足以解釋感覺運動過程,94,236 -237,241,255, 268-269 as inapplicable to the motor cortex (Bernstein),不適用於運動皮層, 104-105 as isolationist rather than global,孤立而非整體,95,131-133 Reflexology,反射論。參見 Experimental reflexology Reinforcement,強化,264 -266,266, 267 Renaissance,文藝復興。參見 Enlightenment challenging authority of the ancients,16,21,22 Rene,勒內。參見 Sherrington's cat Retina,視網膜,226,227,229,231, 232 locomotion and,定位,243 photoreceptors,光感受器, 122, 226,228 retinal neurons,視網膜神經元,226-
228 rod cells of,桿狀胞,157 Retinal ganglion cells,視網膜神經節細胞,226-227 Retinotopic map alignment,視網膜圖形校正面圖,242-245。參見 Topographic mapping Rewards (behavioral),獎勵(行為), 264- 266,266,267 Rhesus monkeys,獼猴。參見 Primate vision, experimental studies problem-solving abilities,解決問題的能力,313 saccadic eye movement studies with, 眼睛掃視運動研究,122,123126,124,328-329 Rhodopsin molecule,視網膜紫質分子, 157-158 Rhythmic behaviors,節奏行為 Brown's study of,布朗的研究,8386,111 rhythmic reflexes (Sherrington),節奏反射,86-87 von Holtz's theory of,馮 • 霍爾茨邁的理論,87-90 Risk avoidance,風險規避,189- 190, 221-222 Robinson, David L.,M. Goldberg and G. Stanton,羅賓森,L.戴維,M. 戈德堡和G.斯坦頓,239-240 Robotics,機器人學 early conceptions of,早期概念,7-8 “Robotic zombie”,機械的殭屍,343344 Vaucanson's duck,沃康松的機械鴨, 3,3- 5,4,31,51,51 - 53, 344-345 索 Roman Catholic Church,羅馬天主教會 the Counterreformation,反改革, 29,179 Descartes's relationship with,笛卡兒的關係,7,30,39 Galileo charged with heresy by,伽利略被指控為異端,22-23,29-30 Jansenist heresy and,詹森主義異端, 340 Jesuit order(perspective on free will),耶穌會士章程(自由意志觀點),179-180,340 Rosenblatt,Frank,羅森布拉特,弗蘭克 computational machines,計算機器, 135-136 perceptrons,感知器,115,116, 117,135 Royal Society of London,倫敦皇家學會,46-48,47,51- 52, 86,193, 194 Russell,Bertrand A. W.,羅素,A.W. 伯特蘭,58-59 Saccadic eye movements,眼睛掃視運動,231,231-233,232,244 the cued saccade and distributed cue experiment,暗示性掃視和分散式暗示實驗,251 defined,確定的,229 linking visual processing with,視覺處理聯絡,231 - 233,232 merory saccade experiments,記憶掃視實驗,245,246,247 motor control syster involved in, 運動控制系統,229 -231,230 premovement planning in,運動前的規劃,245 -246,249-250 • 317•
決策、不確定性和大腦一一神經經濟學 pursuing goals vs.distractors,目標追求與干擾項,253 - 254,255256 saccadic trials in monkeys,猴子的眼睛掃視實驗,237 -239,238, 249-250 Sherringtonian receptor applied to,謝林頓感受器的應用,232-233 visual-saccadic processing,視覺掃視訊號處理,226-231,230 St. Petersburg paradox,聖彼得堡悖論, 188- 189 Salzman,C. Daniel, study of eye movements in rhesus monkeys,獼猴眼肌運動研究,128,129-130 Scholasticism,經院哲學 the Enlightenment and,啟蒙運動, 9,16,29 medieval biomedical texts,中世紀的生物醫學教材,9-12 study of ancient authors,對古代作品的研究,15-16 Schultz,Wolfram,舒爾茨,沃爾弗蘭,332-333 Scientific method,科學方法,179, 299- 300 Bacon's advocacy of the experimental method,培根倡導的實驗方法, 20-22 development of,發展,23-27,3336 enabled by Cartesian synthesis of determinism and body-soul dualism, 笛卡兒關於決定論和身心二元論的綜合,27-31,36-38 Scratch response,Sherrington's study of with dogs,搔癢反應,謝林頓對 •318• 狗的研究,65-66 Sechenov,Ivan M.,謝東諾夫,M.伊萬,65,70 Seinowski, Terry J. and C. Rosenberg, 賽依諾斯基,J.特里和C.羅森伯格,117-119 backpropagation algorithm of,反向傳輸演算法,119-120 Self-activating neurons,自激發神經元, 94-95 Sensorimotor activity,感覺運動。參見 Extrareflexive mechanisms; Visualsaccadic processing; Reflex; Stretch response alignment in retinotopic and motor mappings,視網膜圖形與運動圖形的校正,242-245 computational goals of,計算目標, 266-268 extrareflexive mechanisms involved in,外向反射機制,80,88-89。 (參見 Extra-reflexive mechanisms) in the case of sensory deprivation,在感覺消除的情況下,83-86,90 muscle contraction,肌肉收縮,98-99 nonsensory-nonmotor signals in,非感覺一非運動訊號,239,248 parietal cortex studies related to,相關的大腦皮層研究,225 predatory behavior as,捕食行為, 223 reflexological model of eye movements as,眼睛運動的反射論模型,126, 128,129- 130 reflexological models of,反射論模型,112-113(參見 Neural network models)
Sensory data,感覺資料,172,199 encoding of,編碼,164-165 Sensory deprivation, 感覺消除,8386,90 Sensory signals, exteroceptive and interoceptive,感覺訊號,外感受與內感受,81 -82,83 Shadlen, Michael N., network model of area MT and decision making,謝德林,邁克爾 N.,MT 區域和決策的網路模型,126-130,127 Sherrington, Charles S.,謝林頓,S. 查爾斯,62,66 -67,78.參見 Experimental reflexology:Reflexological paradigm calculus of reflexology,反射論演算法, 60,61-63, 67-70, 112,114 description of the reflex arc,關於反射弧的描述,49 - 50,62 - 63, 68,79 experiments with decerebrate animals,關於腦切除動物的實驗, 61n. 1 model of the nervous system,神經系統模型,63-68 study of reflexes,對反射的研究, 55,63,77 study of scratch response,對瘙癢反應的研究,65-66 Sherringtonian receptor,謝林頓感受器,232-233 Sherringtonian syste,謝林頓體系。 參見Reflexological paradigm Sherrington's cat, as a narrative analysis of reflexes,謝林頓貓,反射的敘述性分析,80-82,90 Spatial constancy in vision, posterior 索引 parietal cortex functioning to establish,視覺空間的不變性,確立後部頂葉皮質區域的功能,243-245 Sperling, George and B. A. Dosher studies of attention,斯柏林,喬治和 B.A. 都舍關於注意力的研究,323324 Spinal cord,脊髓 conduction within,傳導,63-64 deterministic behavior focused within, 確定性行為,48-51 self-activating neural oscillator theory,自我激發的神經振盪器理論, 86 sensation within,感覺,50-51 spinal reflexes and three-layer perceptrons,脊髓反射與三層感知器, 116 “'spinal step”experiments,“脊髓行進”實驗,83,84-85,85 Stevens,David W.and J.R. Krebs,斯蒂芬,W.大衛和J.R. 克雷布斯, 212-213 Stimulus-response relationship,刺激一反應關係,100,239,241,242-243, 245。參見 Reflexological paradigm; Reinforcement; Stretch response ambiguous stimuli,難以區分的刺激,128 eye-movement studies of,眼睛運動研究,126-130 neuronal activity differing from model of, 與模型相異的神經元活動,121-122 not accounting for all neuronal activity,無法說明所有的神經元活動, 88- 89(參見 Extrareflexological mechanisms) • 319•
決策、不確定性和大腦——神經經濟學 posited in neural network models,以神經網路模型斷定,113- 114, 116,117,120-121 post-stimulus neural processing,刺激後神經元訊號處理,245-246, 247 primary vs. proprioceptive(Sherrington model),最初的與本體感受性 (謝林頓模型),83,101 recoding of sensory data in,感覺數據記錄,164-165 reflexological principle of conduction in,傳導的反射論法則,81,109, 122 with tertiary stimulus,第三個刺激, 249 -250,251, 252, 253,254 Strategic behavior,策略行為。參見 Decision-making behavior; Foraging behavior; Mixed strategy solutions; Opponent actions against an opponent,對抗者,300 (參見 Work or shirk game) associated physiological processes,關聯的生理學過程,309-311 in primates,靈長類,286,314317, 316 optimal allocation of attention,注意力的最優配置,323 -325,328 as optirnal behavior,最優行為,274275 random vs. sequential behavior as,隨機與序列行為,207,287n. 3, 308,308 suboptimal behavior as a strategy,次優行為策略,285-287 Stretch response,拉伸反應 biomechanical model of,生物力學模 •320• 型,96- 100, 98 reflex model of,反射模型,63- 65, 64,78-80, 97 Subjective mental experience,主觀精神感受 consciousness as,意識,342-344 of free will,自由意志,300,301, 309,341 Suboptimal behavior,次優行為 matching behavior as,匹配行為,268266 risk avoidance and,風險規避,221222 as strategic,戰略性,200,274275,285-287 Substantia nigra,中腦大神經細胞, dopaminergic neurons of,多巴胺能神經元,332-333 Superior colliculus,上丘,240 Tertiary stimulus experiments,第三個刺激實驗,249-250 Text-to-speech problem neural networks solution,文字一語音轉化問題的神經網路解決方案,113-114,116, 117, 120- 121 neural processes different from,相異的神經過程,121-122 Theory of evolution. 進化論。參見 Evolution Theory of games, 博弈論。 參見 Game theory Topographic mapping,地形圖,227228,230,231 -232,237-239 retinotopic map alignment,視網膜圖形校正,242-245 Trent, Council of,彌撒協會,179
Turing,Alan M.,圖靈,M. 艾倫 on computability,關於可計算性, 73,75 computability theorem,可計算性定理,114 the Universal Turing Machine,普適圖靈機,73-74,113,136 Uncertainty,不確定性,177,268。參見 Bayesian probability estimation; Epistemic uncertainty; Irreducible uncertainty in economic behavior,經濟行為, 207 estimating the likelihood of outcomes, 估計結果的可能性,194-197,195 of future states,未來狀態,223, 339 in past events,過去的事件,197198 Universal Turing Machine,普適圖靈機,73-74,113,136 Unpredictable behavior,不可預測的行為,222,341-342 complex behavior as, 複雜行為, 307,313,318 as potentially deterministic,潛在的確定性,13,27,39 - 40,51, 69,178- 179 as nondeterministic,不確定性,28, 38-40,68- 69, 93, 111-112, 180,271,338 whether animals can produce,動物產生,293,309 Utility functions,效用函式,189191,191,199- 200,202。參見 Expected utility 系 Valuation,估價,189,291-292,325326 calculating expected utility,計算預期效用,281 in cued saccade experiment,有暗示的掃視實驗,261-263,262 expected utility as,預期效用,281, 314-315 as a foundation of modern economic theory,現代經濟理論的基礎, 199 neural activity related to,與神經活動相關,266 in the neuroeconomic model,在神經經濟學模型中,256,321 - 322, 332-334 role of parietal cortex in,大腦皮層的任務,225-226 Vaucanson,Jacques de,沃康松,雅克•德,3, 344 Vaucanson's duck,沃康松機械鴨,3, 3-5,4,31, 51,51-53,344-345 Veblen,Thorstein,托爾斯坦 •凡勃侖,336 Ventral tegmental area,dopaminergic neurons of,大腦內側皮質區,多巴胺能神經元,332-333 Vesalius,Andreas,維薩琉斯,安德列亞斯,18 anatomical studies of,解剖學研究, 17,19 Vision,視覺,126,139,155,226參見 Primary visual cortex (V1) eye movement in,眼睛運動。(參見 Visual-saccadic processing; Saccadic eye movements) mapping in,繪圖(參見 Topographic • 321•
決策、不確定性和大腦一神經經濟學 mapping) 95,129 neural encoding in,神經編碼過程, reflexological model of,反射論模型, 242- 245,243 126,128,129- 130 phototransduction,光傳導,156,156- Visual studies,視覺研究。參見 Pri159 mate vision,experimental studies posterior parietal cortex function in, Volition,意志。參見 Decision making; 後部頂葉皮質的功能,243-245 Free Will; Intention in primates (Primate vision,expericomplex behavior as,複雜行為,28, mental studies),靈長類 38- 40,68 - 69,93,111-112, spatial constancy in vision,視覺的空 180,271,338(參見 Cartesian 間不變性,243-245 dualism) visual fixation, 注視(參見 Visual and mathematical games,數學博弈, fixation), 299 Visual attention,視覺注意力,323as a nonphysical process (the “action of 328 the soul”),非物質過程(心靈的活 Visual cortex,視覺皮質。參見 Prima動),28,39,180,299-300 ry visual cortex (V1) parietal lobe defects as affecting,頂 Visual fixation,注視,244 葉圓形突出部受損的影響,236in experimental trials,實驗,237 - 237 239,238 vs. deterministic behavior,確定性行 gaze stabilization and alignment, 凝為,49 - 51(參見 Deterministic 視穩定性及調整,229 behavior) Visual-saccadic processing,視覺掃視處 Von Holtz,Erik,馮•霍爾茨邁,埃理。參見 Saccadic eye movements; 裡克,129,130 Visual fixation on generative functions of vs. conduccommand structures in,指令結構, tion in the nervous system,神經系 127 統內傳導與生成功能,82,87gaze aligning movements,矯正注視 88,108 運動,229 Von Holtz, Erik and H. Mittelstaedt in eye movement,眼睛運動,226馮 •霍爾茨邁,埃裡克和 H. 米特爾 231,230,328-330 斯德特 leftwardvs. rightward movement encoon eye-world rotation,眼睛轉動,90ding populations,左右向運動總體 93,92,95 編碼,126-129 on the reafference principle, 再內導 and the primate brain,靈長類大腦, 原則,88-90 225,229 reflex paradigm challenged in work reafference in,再內導,88-93,92, of,挑戰反射論正規化,88,93-94 •322•
Von Neumann, John and O. Morgenstern. 馮• 諾依曼,約翰和O. 摩根斯坦,參見 Game theory;Zero-sum game theory of games,博奔論,277-278, 282,314,339 the Hoimes-Moriarty game,福爾摩斯-莫里亞蒂博弈,279t,279-282 Weiss,Paul,維斯,保羅,95-104 belief that goals are involved in movement,動作包含目標的信念, 100-101 muscle contraction experiment of,肌肉收縮實驗,101-104,102 the nervous system as globally organized in,作為整體的神經系統, 101 stretch response model of,拉伸反應模型,96-100,98 Whitehead, Alfred N.,懷特黑德,N. 阿爾弗雷德,59 Wilson,E. O.,威爾遜,E. O. 336 Work or shirk game,工作或曠工博弈。 參見 See also Decision making associated physiological processes,相關的生理學過程,309-311 elements of,要素,300-304,301t human performance in,人類行為, 304 - 309,306,307 索 inspect or no-inspect variation,有監視與無監視變化,312-313 rhesus monkeys’ performance in,獼猴的表現,311-313,313,314 World states,世界的狀態,194-197, 195。參見 Billiard ball world changing probabilities in,變化的概率,330-332 game theory as efficient in modeling,概率論有效地用於建模,282,288289 irreducible uncertainty in,不可約簡的不確定性,276,317-318 deterministic mathematics limited re, 確定性數學的侷限性,55,72, 177,200 strategic decisions not always optimizing in,策略並非總是最優,221222 uncertainty in,不確定性,177 whether determinism possible in,決定論是否可能,51,178-179 Zero-one rule, not observed in foraging behavior,0-1法則,覓食行為中無法觀察到,220,221 -222 Zero-sum game,零和博弈,278-279, 282 the Holmes-Moriarty game,福爾摩斯-莫里亞蒂博弈,279t,279-282 • 323•
Decisions, Uncertainty and the Brain: The Science of Neuroeconomics by Paul W. Glimcher ISBN:0-262-07244-0 © 2003 Paul W. Gilmcher All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recovering, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. Simplified Chinese version © 2009 by China Renmin University Press.